Principles of Learning
1 Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to consider how learning theories and learning principles can impact effective learning of any learner or group of learners.
Before any consideration can be given to the principles of learning the question needs to be answered - what is learning? Curzan (1990) cites Galperin (1965), 'Any activities that develop new knowledge and abilities in the individual who carries them out, or else cause old knowledge and abilities to acquire new qualities'. Curzan (1990) also cites Ryle (1983), 'Learning is becoming capable of doing some correct or suitable thing in any situations of certain general sorts. It is becoming prepared for variable calls within certain ranges.' The Collins National Dictionary defines the word 'learn' as 'to acquire knowledge; to get to know; to gain knowledge; to take example from. Therefore learning is gaining a skill, knowledge, opinion or behavior by means of practice, transfer, study or a combination of many methods.
2 Learners
The learners who are tutored by tutors at Right to Write are referred, mainly, through the department for employment via schemes such as: Work Preparation and Access to Work. The learners are referred because a learning difficulty, such as; Dyslexia, Dyscalcula, Dyspraxia, Asperger's syndrome or Attention Deficit Disorder, has been recognized and identified as a barrier to effective work.
I tutor the learners one-to-one, aiding them to learn strategies which help them to overcome their hidden disability. I teach them Literacy, Numeracy, Organizational Skills, I.T. Skills and Interpersonal Skills (Soft Skills). The learners are taught according to their skill deficit and job requirement. The aim is to ensure each learner had a skill set to meet their particular job function needs.
3 Learner Characteristics
Each learner comes with their own set of needs and their own learning style, depending upon their own hidden disability. Learners may have any, or a combination, of the following hidden disabilities: dyslexia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, Aspergers Syndrome and Attention Deficit Disorder. I agree with the findings of Rogers and Freiberg (1994) when they were working with emotionally disturbed children. Whilst learning can be classified into certain groups (visual learner, auditory learner and kinaesthetic learner) there are as many learning styles as children'. With the short experience of one-to-one teaching of people with hidden disabilities, I have found differences in each person's learning style.
Learners with hidden disabilities often have issues and past experiences such as; poor relationship with teachers/tutors, a phobia of anything connected with learning and a low self esteem.
The above have normally occurred because those around them have exacerbated the difficulties brought about by their hidden disability. Ott cites Edwards (1994) that the emotional effects of our treatment of the dyslexic pupils in our schools are severely under-estimated. Ott (1997) adds that many of these young people require professional counseling to help them to cope.
The learners referred to Right to Write for tutoring in strategies for combating dyslexia often need much encouragement and 'persuasion' before they are fully prepared to give a high level of effort to the training program. This is because they feel they have been 'let down' by the education system so many times in the past. Time is therefore often needed to break down the barriers they have erected to learning.
4 Learning Theories
There are three main theories on learning; behaviorist, cognitive and humanistic.
4.1 Behaviorist
The main contributors to the thinking on behaviorist learning are Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner. Behaviorist theory concentrates only on observable behavior.
Thorndike E. L. (1931) put forward a 'law of effect' - a response that response that results in positive consequences is likely to be repeated. So if we reward the action it will occur more frequently. Skinner B. F. (1938) proposed that behavior can be changed by rewarding desirable behavior (Positive Reinforcement) and removing rewards or giving punishment as a response to undesirable behavior (Negative Reinforcement) Operant Conditioning.
The behaviorist school of thought concentrates only on observed behavior and says that learning has only taken place when a learner's behavior has changed, see Skinner B. F. (1968). I believe those who espouse the behaviorist theory to the exclusion of other theories seem to have overlooked the contribution a learner makes to the learning process and the consciousness of the learner during the learning process.
4.2 Cognitive
The major contributors to the thinking behind cognitive learning theory are; Bruner, Ausabel and Gagne. Some of the advocates of the Cognitive theory accepted some of the observations made by the Behaviorist Psychologists but developed them further.
Ausabel D. and Anderson R. C. (1965) proposed that advanced organizers which are substantive structures that are stable and to which learners hang concepts 'trees of understanding'. Relating to learners experience and knowledge.
Gagne, an educational psychologist developed the behaviorist theory and transformed it into cognitive theory. Educationalists have taken Gagne's model and reformed into a learning model, see Huddleston P. and Unwin L. (1997).
Stage one Motivation
Student's motives and expectations identified and brought into line with teaching objectives.
Stage two Apprehending
Teacher gains student's attention by various means.
Stage three Acquisition
Knowledge, skills and understanding acquired by the student in a form in which they are ready to be lodged in the memory.
Stage four Retention
Student is helped to memorize and assimilate new learning.
Stage five Recall
Student encouraged to retrieve learning ready for application.
Stage six Generalization
Student transfers learning to range of situations.
Stage seven Performance
Student tries out newly acquired learning.
Stage eight Feedback
Student is helped to judge performance and reflect.
The problem with attempting to model people's approach and effects of learning is that their simplicity can be misleading. Teaching and learning can often be unstructured and individuals do not always find it helpful or necessary to have their learning confined within a chronological framework. The stages shown above can be fused and their order could be rearranged to reflect particular learners and their circumstances.
4.3 Humanistic
Rogers, Knowles, Brandes and Ginnis are the main contributors to the humanistic learning theory. The main element of the humanistic learning theory is learner centered learning.
Rogers C. (1983) proposed a theory of self. This involves a 'personal experience' of the world. He believed that organisms are born with a need for positive regard which is the socializing force. Congruence occurs if these needs are met. In this way humans learn about the world.
Knowles M. (1978) presents the science of andragogy - the art of helping adults to learn by recognizing the benefit of self-directed study.
The humanistic model of education moves from a teacher centered approach to a learner centered approach. Some of the changes in the classroom brought in by this approach are; learners exercise choice, curriculum focus is on felt concerns, focus on life skills i.e. communication, learners monitor their own progress and the teacher takes the role of facilitator.
The humanistic theory can seen as though it has not been thought through fully and a little 'woolly' round the edges. On the difficulty of defining exactly what humanistic education is Bentham S. (2002) cites Kirschenbaum (1975). This difficulty stems from the fact that humanistic education is in fact an umbrella term that refers to several related approaches. The three main approaches are curriculum content, learning process and group structure. When the main focus is upon one of the three elements only the humanistic theory becomes slightly distorted and changed.
4.4 Making Sense of Learning Theories
Within the three main schools of thought on learning; Behaviorist, Cognitive and humanistic there are a plethera of ideas, models and approaches. I believe that is is not in the interest of teacher or learner for me to become a 'slave' of one particular theory or model. I have arrived at the conclusion that each theory has some elements that will help me formulate the approach that I will need to have for my own group/groups of learners.
The behaviorist theory will assist me to ensure that encouragement is given to the learners and achievement are recognized and rewarded. This is very important with my learners as they have often been disenfranchised from the learning process in the past due to the attitudes of teachers.
Although people with a hidden disability (i.e. dyslexia) do not learn in a structured manner (linear) the cognitive theory will remind me of the necessary elements in the learning process.
The humanistic theory will aid me in my listening skills, which in turn will help me to direct the learner into self motivation. Due to the past experiences of my learners they often do not respond to external motivation, their motivation needs to come from within.
During my teaching I will trial different approaches - the approach will often need to be modified dependent upon the learner I am working with.
5 Learning Principles
Principles of learning are derived from learning theories. The learning principles employed in one's teaching depends upon the learning theory that one embraces. Due to the fact that I have not embraced any one particular learning theory, but have taken 'the best' from each, the principles which I will endeavor to implement reflect elements from all three learning theories.
Due the the 'group' of learners I teach, the learning principles which inform my teaching need to be carefully selected and thought through. There are many learning principles - some of which have been developed and further developed. The learning principles below I have gleaned from the following sources; www.dfes.gov.uk/readwriteplus, www.wellclosesquare.co.uk/training and Bentham S. (2002). I have placed them in the order of importance when related to my own learners.
Don't assume you know what the implications of a hidden disability are; ask the learners themselves, and listen to what they say - they are the experts on the effects of their learning difficulty or disability.
Be aware of your own attitudes - it is often teacher attitudes (for example, patronizing behavior or pity or embarrassment) rather than an individual's disability that can create barriers.
Develop a learning environment that encourages all participants to respond to the range of learning needs, aspirations and difficulties in the group in positive, frank, supportive and creative ways.
Learn to have moments when you sit back and observe what works for a particular learner and what does not - and make sure this includes observing his or her strengths as well as the things he or she finds difficult; there may be emotional issues that create a barrier to learning and which you will need to address before learning can take place.
The learner is a partner with the teacher in the learning process, learners should actively influence the learning approach.
Learners learn best what they practice and perform on their own.
Ensure that the range of resources is appropriate and adequate to meet the needs of learners.
Do not be afraid of trying things out that might not work; it is sometimes necessary to explore different ways of working in order to find out which is the most effective; this is all right as long as you and the learner work through the issues and decide on the strategy together.
Learners' learning becomes less efficient as the mental load they carry increases.
Knowledge tends to be specific to the context in which it is learned.
Learning is more efficient when learners receive real-time feedback as they solve problems.
Learners learn what they perceive to be useful in their life situations, make the content and materials closely fit assessed needs.
Adults do not typically see themselves as learners, give participants a rationale for becoming involved and provide opportunities for success.
I believe that learning principles which are employed by a teacher need to be regularly assessed against the learners needs and modifying where required and appropriate.
6 Summary
There are three schools of thought regarding learning theory - Behaviorism, Cognivitism and Humanism, these schools of thought led to three main learning theories. From these learning theories learning principles were developed, which have been applied by teachers over the years. There have been periods of time when one particular theory and it's principles held sway then another would then come into popularity.
I believe the balanced approach to learning theory and principles is not to be espoused to one particular theory and it's principles in isolation but to develop principles around each group of learners needs. Principles of learning will change from group to group and will be affected by the personality of the teacher.
Learning theories should not be there as a constraint upon teachers and learners but as a valuable 'tool' to aid and direct learning.
7 Bibliography
Curzan L.B. (1990) Teaching in Further Education, (Fourth Edition) London Cassell.
Bentham S. (2002) Psychology and Education, East Sussex Routledge.
Huddleston P. and Unwin L. (1997) Teaching and Learning in Further Education, London Routledge.
Knowles M. (1978) The Adult Learner: A neglected species, Houston Gulf.
Rogers C. (1983) Freedom to learn for the 80's, Columbus Merrill.
Rogers C. and Freiberg H.J. (1994) Freedom to learn, (Third edition) New York Merrill.
Skinner B.F. (1938) The Behavior of Organisms, an Experimental Analysis, New York Prentice-Hall.
Skinner B.F. (1968) The Technology of Teaching, New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Thorndike E.L. (1931) Human Learning, New York, Prentice-Hall.
Ott P. (1997) How to detect and manage dyslexia, Oxford Blantyre.
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